Historical Background - Conspiracy

CONSPIRACY

The only institution which legitimately had the power to overthrow Hitler at any time was the military.  But with the Oath having been taken by all military officers and men of uniform, Hitler had undermined them using their own code of honor.  The Oath and its effect on the officer corps cannot be overstated.  Many officers in the upper echelon of the German military were opposed to Hitler and his reckless policies, including General Ludwig Beck, Chief of the General Staff until August 1938 and one of the key conspirators in the July 20, 1944 plot.  But they had taken “The Oath” and as such were duty bound to follow it.  On returning home after having pledged fealty to Hitler, Beck called the day the darkest of his life.   He never forgave himself for not having resigned in protest at that moment.

Beck would get his first chance at redemption in 1938.  A pivotal year, first General Werner von Fritsch, Hitler’s Commander-in-Chief was forced out because of his objections to the Fuhrer’s aggressive policies.  Then in March, the German army marched into Austria.  Soon after, Hitler declared his intentions against the Sudetenland and Czechoslovakia proper.  What followed was a summer filled with a sense of impending doom.  Many in the leadership of the armed forces, including General Beck, realized the German army was not ready for a fight with the British and the French.  They knew if the Allies attacked, the German army would not only be beaten, but would likely be annihilated.  Some in the military prepared for this eventuality.  As soon as the French and British came to the defense of Czechoslovakia, they would launch a coup against Hitler.  By July 16, at a meeting with General Walther von Brauchitsch, Fritsch’s successor, Beck urged others in high ranking positions to stand up to Hitler and resign.  He wrote of the Generals that “if their advice and warnings are ignored…they have the right and duty before history and the German people to resign.”  Shortly after, Hitler demanded Beck’s dismissal and the Chief of the General Staff tendered his resignation on August 18th.

Those who were involved in coup preparations moved forward, but on September 13th, Prime Minister Chamberlain of England announced he would meet with Hitler to negotiate a settlement to the crisis.  The Munich Agreement was signed on September 29th.  Less than a year later the world was at war and serious attempts to launch a coup would not take place again until 1943.

By that year, General Beck, in retirement, but part of a growing number of men in and outside of the military and political establishment who believed it necessary for the survival of Germany to depose Hitler, were actively plotting the overthrow of the Nazi regime.  Around March 1942, a group consolidated around General Beck and Lieutenant General Friedrich Olbricht, Chief of the General Army Office in Berlin, along with several other military officers.  Olbricht was known for not having been seduced by Hitler and the Nazis in any form.  He became “the de facto technical head of the conspiracy, and it was his task to lay the groundwork for the government takeover to follow Hitler’s assassination.” 

By the summer of 1942, plans were under way.  Field Marshals and Generals were approached, exhorted to support the coup in the field when the moment came.  Explosives were procured for an attempt on Hitler’s life.  In March 1943, while Claus von Stauffenberg was in Africa, the first serious attempt was made on the life of the Fuhrer.  On the 13th, Hitler boarded a plane from Smolensk where Army Group Center command was located.  (Eastern Campaign)  On the plane was a package (ostensibly bottles of Cointreau) with explosives inside.  The plane took off and the plotters anxiously awaited word of an explosion.  But it never came.  The bomb failed to detonate.  The conspirators had to scramble to retrieve the bomb so they would not be discovered.  Another attempt, this time a suicide mission, was made on March 21st, but was thwarted because of Hitler’s unpredictable schedule.

It was less than a month later that Claus von Stauffenberg was injured in Africa.  By July, he was home, and though injured and still not in perfect health, he met at least twice with one of the leading military officers of the conspiracy between August and November.  On October 1, 1943, he was to be posted as Chief of Staff to General Olbricht.  Now promoted to Lieutenant-Colonel, at last the conspiracy had found a man who could not only take charge, but who would, in the end, take it upon himself to assassinate the Fuhrer.

Stauffenberg would become involved in the operational details of the coup as well – writing and rewriting the Valkyrie orders that would be issued upon Hitler’s death.  The Valkyrie orders had originally been drawn up in case of an emergency in Berlin, but Claus and his fellow conspirators modified them to suit their needs.  When Hitler was dead, Operation Valkyrie would go into effect.  The Home Army (National Guard) would take over key assets in Berlin.  The orders had to be executed by the Chief of the Home Army, General Friedrich Fromm.  But Fromm was not keen on the plot.  Although he certainly knew of Stauffenberg’s, his special missions officer Werner von Haeften’s as well as General Olbricht’s involvement, he never fully committed himself to the coup.  In fact, he liked to boast that he “always came down on the right side.” Thus even from the beginning, with one uncommitted General in arguably the most critical position, the coup was, at best, a gamble.

With Beck’s blessing, Stauffenberg took a leading role.  He would make contact with the Social Democrats, including their leader, Julius Leber.  Politically, Stauffenberg had been a conservative, but as his involvement in the plot deepened, he recognized that if the new Germany were to have a chance, it would need a government with broad support.  He drew sharp criticism from other, more conservative political elements in the plot for his dealings with Leber and his support of the Labor Unions, but that did not deter him.  Beck would be President, but the question of Chancellor remained.   For the present, Carl Goerdeler, a conservative politician, former Mayor of Leipzig and a long-standing staunch opponent of the Nazi regime would be given the office.

As the conspiracy grew, the demand for unconditional surrender had an increasingly polarizing effect on the plotters.  Feelers were made to the Allies.  Always the response was essentially, “Do something about Hitler first, then we’ll talk.”  Some in the German resistance felt that without a guarantee of better terms, they should not act.  Others, including Stauffenberg took the position that they should act first and worry about consequences later.  By mid September, Claus, assisted by his brother Berthold, was reworking documents for the new German government, including statements of intent.  So much paperwork was generated and burning them would have attracted too much attention that when Nina, Claus’ wife, came to Berlin for a wedding on October 28th, she had to take a sack of papers home with her to be destroyed.

By the end of October, 1943, the Valkyrie plans were ready, but a leading conspirator whose task it had been to search for an assassin was called back to the front.  Thus, it was up to Stauffenberg to take on this mission as well.  He approached several men, including Haeften, some for suicidal missions, but the Fuhrer’s constant postponement of meetings, presentations and ceremonies would stymie all attempts.

As Stauffenberg continued to search, the conspiracy was tearing itself apart.  The political questions of the Chancellorship led to controversies “until everyone alternately agreed and disagreed with everyone else in one way or another.”  Still the question of unconditional surrender remained at the forefront of the debate.   In late November, early December, the Allies repeated their terms unequivocally.  For a short time, the conspirators toyed with the idea of reaching out to the Soviet Union for a separate peace, but this was only discussed as a ploy to entice the West to be more forgiving in their demands. Still overtures were made to the West to open up the front.  From January 3 through January 6, 1944, Claus was in Stockholm where he tried to set up a contact in the British government through Jakob Wallenberg and his brother.  But all hopes for a separate peace with the West and an amelioration of the demand for unconditional surrender were dashed when, on July 11, the conspirators learned that the British ambassador in Madrid had restated emphatically that Germany would have to surrender unconditionally on all fronts before any peace could be negotiated.

Another divisive issue was whether or not to reach out to the German Communists for support.  Leber had contacts among the group and after a meeting of the plotters on June 21 where there were violent arguments, he did so.  Moral and ethical questions also plagued the conspiracy.  Some were against assassination on religious grounds, others because of the Oath of Loyalty, but Claus stood steadfast and succeeded in wearing down the opposition. 

As the conspirators continued to bicker and search for an assassin, on June 6th, the situation in the West changed dramatically.  The Allies landed in Normandy and within two weeks had established their position on the Continent.  This gave new impetus to the plotters as there was no way the German army could sustain a war in the East and the West.

On July 1st, Stauffenberg was promoted to full Colonel and posted as Chief of the General Staff to the Home Army.  His replacement on Olbricht’s staff was Colonel Mertz von Quirnheim, whom Claus had befriended at the War Academy.  With his new posting, Stauffenberg would have direct access to Hitler.  At the time of the announcement of his posting in mid-June, Stauffenberg committed himself to carrying out the assassination attempt himself.  Beck, at first, resisted the idea.  Partly because of the younger officer’s injuries and partly because he was too important to the coup in Berlin. But the tactical and strategic situation for Germany was grim and there had been too many failed attempts.  Beck finally relented.

Other imperatives also forced the conspirator’s hand.  Close associates of the conspirators were being arrested.  On July 5, Leber himself was arrested.  Rumors abounded in Berlin that a coup was being planned and fear of the Gestapo closing in made it necessary to act and act immediately.

On July 11, Claus went to Hitler’s headquarters in Berchtesgaden carrying a bomb.  He was prepared to attempt the assassination, but Himmler and Goerring were not there and although the attempts in March 1943 had taken place against Hitler alone, now, field marshals were demanding no attempt take place without the two other leaders present.   The Valkyrie orders were issued before Claus was notified of the Generals’ decisions and the conspirators had to quickly recall the troops, claiming it was simply an exercise.  On July 14, Hitler’s headquarters was moved to the Wolf’s Lair in Rastenburg, East Prussia.  On the 15th, Claus went to Rastenburg for a briefing.  He was carrying a briefcase with a bomb and was again planning to carry out an assassination attempt.  When he arrived, he was told by General Erich Fellgiebel that he was not to make an attempt because Himmler was not there. During the briefing, he twice left to call the conspirators in Berlin to get approval.  Both Beck and Olbricht refused.  At one point he spoke to Mertz and they agreed he should act no matter what, but when he returned to the briefing Hitler had left.  That night, Claus reported to Beck.

On July 18th, Claus was informed he would be going to Rastenburg again on July 20th.  On the afternoon of July 19th, the conspirators informed the field officers the coup would take place the next day.  On his way home from the office, Claus stopped at a church.  When he arrived home, Berthold was waiting for him.   Claus showed him the briefcase with the bomb covered by a shirt.  That night Berthold stayed with his brother.  Also that night, Claus tried calling his wife, Nina, but bombs had been dropped near Lautlingen and he could not get through.  He woke up the next morning, July 20th, and, accompanied by Berthold went to the airfield for the plane ride to the Wolf’s Lair.